B.1 Individual Differences
B.1.1 Define the term personality
“Those relatively stable and enduring aspects of individuals which distinguish them from other people, making them unique but at the same time permit a comparison between individuals”. (Gross, 1992)
“Those relatively stable and enduring aspects of individuals which distinguish them from other people, making them unique but at the same time permit a comparison between individuals”. (Gross, 1992)
B.1.2 Discuss social learning theory and personality
B.1.3 Discuss the interactionist approach to personality
B.1.4 Outline issues with the measurement of personality
B.1.5 Evaluate the issue in personality research and sports performance
Consider
athletes versus non-athletes: may discourage non-sportspeople from attempting sports that don't 'fit' their personality
personality and sport type: if a personality is assigned to a sport, those not demonstrating will be less likely to take up the sport as they do not think that they suit the stereotype of the sport.
predicting performance: implications of predicting performance, rather than it be a natural progression and taking into consideration environmental factors
Consider
athletes versus non-athletes: may discourage non-sportspeople from attempting sports that don't 'fit' their personality
personality and sport type: if a personality is assigned to a sport, those not demonstrating will be less likely to take up the sport as they do not think that they suit the stereotype of the sport.
predicting performance: implications of predicting performance, rather than it be a natural progression and taking into consideration environmental factors
B.2 Motivation
B.2.1 Define the term motivation
Motivation is “the internal mechanisms and external stimuli which arouse and direct our behaviour” (Sage, 1974).
Motivation is “the internal mechanisms and external stimuli which arouse and direct our behaviour” (Sage, 1974).
B.2.2 Outline the types of motivation
Intrinsic motivation theory
Intrinsic motivation theory
- comes from within
- pride and satisfaction of having a good game
- can come from a need, a desire to learn to swim to survive
- comes from an outside source
- intangible - raise from coaches
- tangible - winning a trophy
B.2.3 Discuss the issues associated
with the use of intrinsic and
extrinsic motivators in sports
and exercise
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Intrinsic
- Player may lose interest
- difficult to maintain levels of interest
Extrinsic
- only want to play for material rewards
- decreases intrinsic motivation
- want to win, less focus is put on personal improvement
- more likely to avoid difficult competitions
Motivation Theories (B.2.4, B.2.5, B.2.6)
B.2.4 Describe Atkinson's Model of Achievement Motivation
Relates strongly to personality - the degree to which a player accepts the prospect of a challenge in sport; aka an individuals motivation to strive for success. It is the extent to which we approach and welcome challenge and competition, or avoid competitive situations.
NACH - welcome challenge and competition
NAF - avoid competitive situations
Example: In a football final the score is 1-1 and a last-minute penalty is awarded.
The player who refuses to take the penalty fears he/she may fail; losing self-esteem. He has the motive to avoid failure (Naf)
The player who wants to take the penalty wants the glory and is driven by the motive to succeed; gaining self-esteem. He has the motive to achieve success (Nach)
Motivation can be:
Autonomous competence stage:
Relates strongly to personality - the degree to which a player accepts the prospect of a challenge in sport; aka an individuals motivation to strive for success. It is the extent to which we approach and welcome challenge and competition, or avoid competitive situations.
NACH - welcome challenge and competition
- will take a penalty shot
- will be willing to take on tough competitors
- will be calm in limelight
- accept challenges
- demonstrate task persistence
- be quick and efficient
- take risks
- welcome feedback
- take personal responsibility for actions
- try harder after failure
NAF - avoid competitive situations
- avoid volunteering for stressful situation
- wary of taking on tough competitors
- will volunteer others as they will be too nervous
- avoid responsibility
- take an easy option
- give up after failure
Example: In a football final the score is 1-1 and a last-minute penalty is awarded.
The player who refuses to take the penalty fears he/she may fail; losing self-esteem. He has the motive to avoid failure (Naf)
The player who wants to take the penalty wants the glory and is driven by the motive to succeed; gaining self-esteem. He has the motive to achieve success (Nach)
Motivation can be:
- Instinctive- a player always wants to compete regardless of the event
- Nurtured through experience- a player can be confident and competitive in the event he/she has become successful in
Autonomous competence stage:
- up to 5 years of age
- not concerned if anyone else can do the skill better
- from 6 years old
- when a child starts to compare with others
- might be uncomfortable with competition
- sees both external and internal standards to evaluate performance
B.2.5 Outline Goal Orientation Theory / Achievement Goal Theory
Achievement Goal Theory refers to how people evaluate/judge their competence and define successful accomplishments. It refers to personal interpretations they have about what achievement means to them within a specific task.
According to this theory, three factors combine to determine motivation:
Ego-Oriented: measure their success based on beating others and being the best (Extrinsic motivation)
Task-Oriented: measure their success against themselves, how well they complete a task (personal bests) (Intrinsic motivation)
Achievement Goal Theory refers to how people evaluate/judge their competence and define successful accomplishments. It refers to personal interpretations they have about what achievement means to them within a specific task.
- Individuals focus on mastering the task, learning skills, exerting effort, and self improvement.
- Ego-Involvement: Individuals focus on demonstrating superior ability compared to others, as well as winning in competitions with less effort than others.
According to this theory, three factors combine to determine motivation:
- Achievement goals
- Perceived ability
- Achievement behavior
Ego-Oriented: measure their success based on beating others and being the best (Extrinsic motivation)
Task-Oriented: measure their success against themselves, how well they complete a task (personal bests) (Intrinsic motivation)
B.2.6 Describe Attribution Theory and its application to sport and exercise
Learned Helplessness
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It is the perception of whether the cause of their success or failure at a task is;
Internal - ‘I tried really hard’ External - ‘my opponent was easy to beat’ Loosing Internal - ‘I didn't try hard enough’ External - ‘my opponent was impossible to beat Unstable vs Stable Stable = ability & difficulty of the task Unstable = effort & luck Control over the situation (a sure win vs a tight game) Self-serving Bias
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B.3 Mental Preparation for Sport
B.3.1 Define the term arousal
Arousal is an alertness or state of reediness (ranging from deep sleep to intense alertness) of the body for an action
It is neutral and can be triggered by both pleasant/positive and unpleasant/negative situations
It is how motivated/interested/excited an athlete is prior to and throughout the performance
Arousal is an alertness or state of reediness (ranging from deep sleep to intense alertness) of the body for an action
It is neutral and can be triggered by both pleasant/positive and unpleasant/negative situations
It is how motivated/interested/excited an athlete is prior to and throughout the performance
B.3.2 Describe the theoretical approaches to arousal
B.3.3 Draw and label a graphical representation of the arousal performance relationship.
B.3.3 Draw and label a graphical representation of the arousal performance relationship.
B.3.4 Discuss the emotions that
may influence an athlete’s
performance or experience in a
physical activity
B.3.5 Define the term anxiety
Anxiety is a negative emotion of apprehension and tension (stress) which includes irrational thoughts, fear of failure, self doubt and worry
There are two types:
Anxiety is a negative emotion of apprehension and tension (stress) which includes irrational thoughts, fear of failure, self doubt and worry
There are two types:
- Trait (innate) anxiety
- State (situation) anxiety
B.3.6 Distinguish between cognitive
and somatic anxiety
B.3.7 Distinguish between trait and
state anxiety
B.3.8 Evaluate how anxiety is measured
Both state and trait anxiety affect performance; psychologists have therefore tried to devise ways of measuring a persons state and trait anxiety. E.g Physiological measures of somatic anxiety (measurement of heart rate, muscle tension, sweating) Observation Questionnaires SCAT Aimed to find out which competitors are likely to become too anxious in a competitive situation. Scoring from a sport specific situation gives an indication of that person?s level of state anxiety in competition-specific situations. Four factors are related to competitive anxiety:-
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CSAI - 2
Measured three components: cognitive, somatic, self-efficacy. Given out before competition but more than once, such as a week before, a day before, and half an hour before this. Enables researchers to discover baseline levels of anxiety and compare it with pre-competition levels to see if they differ. STAI Is a self report questionnaire in which people rate how nervous they feel both in general and in specific situations. The scoring system for the questions gives an indication of both the state anxiety and the trait anxiety of the performer. |
B.3.9 Describe the stress process in sport
B.4 Psychological Skills Training
B.4.1 Discuss psychological skills training (PST)
• It is
– Learnable
– Should benefit everyone who is in a performance setting
– Should complement other preparations
• Psychological Skills Training has 3 phases
– Education
– Acquisition
– Practice
• Goal Setting
• Mental Imagery
• Relaxation Techniques
• Self-Talk
• PST attempts to equip athletes with the skills to manipulate factors that can affect performance
– Self-confidence
– Motivation
– Concentration
– Skill acquisition
– Emotional control
– Coping with pain and injury
– Arousal Regulation
– Attention
– Cognitive Regulation – dealing with adversity
• It is
– Learnable
– Should benefit everyone who is in a performance setting
– Should complement other preparations
• Psychological Skills Training has 3 phases
– Education
– Acquisition
– Practice
• Goal Setting
• Mental Imagery
• Relaxation Techniques
• Self-Talk
• PST attempts to equip athletes with the skills to manipulate factors that can affect performance
– Self-confidence
– Motivation
– Concentration
– Skill acquisition
– Emotional control
– Coping with pain and injury
– Arousal Regulation
– Attention
– Cognitive Regulation – dealing with adversity
B.4.2 Outline goal setting
• Outcome Goals • Results or objectives to be achieved • involves comparisons with others • e.g. I want to win the game Performance Goals • some measure of personal performance • e.g. I want to make 8/10 tackles • Action/Process Goals • Things that need to be done to achieve desired outcomes • e.g. I will practice my tackling 20 times a session OUTCOME GOALS give direction whilst ACTION GOALS move us toward that direction |
B.4.3 Evaluate mental imagery
• A symbolic sensory experience that mat occur in any sensory mode • Mental Rehearsal is the employment of imagery to mentally practice an act. Therefore, it is a technique. • Issues when Developing Imagery Skills. – Using all the Senses – Internal or External Imagery – Imagery Control • Imagery Uses – Improve Technique – Whilst Injured – Learning a New Skill – Motivational Issues |
B.4.4 Outline relaxation techniques
• Can promote both physical and cognitive relaxation
– Centering
• A term often associated with meditation, centering is, simply put, taking the time to be in the moment, to focus and calm yourself.
You can center yourself in just a few minutes, and by doing so regularly you'll find that you can go within to take a break whenever you need it.
– Progressive Muscular Relaxation (PMR)
• Can promote both physical and cognitive relaxation
– Centering
• A term often associated with meditation, centering is, simply put, taking the time to be in the moment, to focus and calm yourself.
You can center yourself in just a few minutes, and by doing so regularly you'll find that you can go within to take a break whenever you need it.
– Progressive Muscular Relaxation (PMR)
- 5, 7, or 20 body areas
- Contract for five seconds, relax. Repeat x 5
- Pair the sensation to a clear blue sky
B.4.5 Outline self-talk techniques
Discuss how a sport coach uses social learning theory when using demonstrations as a learning tool.
Social learning theory (SLT) was created by the psychologist Albert Bandura and explains the concept of the acquisition of knowledge and skills. SLT supports the concept that personality is not an innate set of characteristics, unlike the trait theory created by Allport. SLT claims that personality is learned by active viewing. There is a necessity of a role model, for which the process of the learning takes place. The stages start from a demonstration done by the role model, by which the viewer and the learner follows through with attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation before they finally match the skill demonstrated.
For the demonstration to be successful when coaching athletes the role model or the demonstrator has to be respected or admired by the learners. Whereas a famous athlete would work, a coach that is respected or a fellow successful teammate will also stimulate attention from the watching athletes, which is the first stage of demonstrative learning.
For the process to continue working, the performers must be able to retain the observed skill in their memory, which is known as retention. A coach must ensure that the length and complexity of the skill is fitting to the level of the performers. For instance, if a player is in the cognitive stage of learning to play the sport of touch, the skill the coach teaches to the athletes should be something such as placing the ball on the ground when touched. This skill forms the basis of the sport, and is what is shaped into more complex moves as the players improve. However, if coaching player at the top end of the associative stage, the players may learn a complicated move that involves multiple touches by demonstration. As the associative stage describes the ability to filter out relevant and irrelevant material due to selective attention, the athletes, paired with their improved skill level, will be able to appropriately learn this new skill.
The coach must also take into consideration the athlete's physical ability to reproduce the skill, which is known as motor reproduction. The players must have to physical fitness required to perform the skill. TIme may also be needed by the players to fully comprehend the new skill, especially if it is complex and has many steps. For this the coach may demonstrate the skill more than once. Another good technique the coach could use is to allow the participants to attempt the new skill themselves after the demonstration, and then afterwards show the demonstration again, pointing out error that the players made and ways to produce the skill successfully.
The final stage that leads to the ability to reproduce the learned skill accurately is motivational response. For any of the three stages above, the performer must be motivated, and want to learn new skills. This motivation may come internally, or can be enforced through feedback from the coach or praise when the skill or an aspect of the skill is done correctly. The coach can aid this motivation by allowing the performer a sense of achievement by feeding back extrinsically in a positive manner to the players.
After the demonstration and these stages of learning based on observation, which is social learning theory, the player may successfully match the performance of demonstrator. Demonstration is a favored teaching method of coaches, as many people learn visually. Players may also learn kinesthetically and the stage of motor reproduction that SLT allows will assist these participants in the acquisition of the new skill. If the coach understand the theory, it can be a very successful way to teach new skills to players of all levels.
For the demonstration to be successful when coaching athletes the role model or the demonstrator has to be respected or admired by the learners. Whereas a famous athlete would work, a coach that is respected or a fellow successful teammate will also stimulate attention from the watching athletes, which is the first stage of demonstrative learning.
For the process to continue working, the performers must be able to retain the observed skill in their memory, which is known as retention. A coach must ensure that the length and complexity of the skill is fitting to the level of the performers. For instance, if a player is in the cognitive stage of learning to play the sport of touch, the skill the coach teaches to the athletes should be something such as placing the ball on the ground when touched. This skill forms the basis of the sport, and is what is shaped into more complex moves as the players improve. However, if coaching player at the top end of the associative stage, the players may learn a complicated move that involves multiple touches by demonstration. As the associative stage describes the ability to filter out relevant and irrelevant material due to selective attention, the athletes, paired with their improved skill level, will be able to appropriately learn this new skill.
The coach must also take into consideration the athlete's physical ability to reproduce the skill, which is known as motor reproduction. The players must have to physical fitness required to perform the skill. TIme may also be needed by the players to fully comprehend the new skill, especially if it is complex and has many steps. For this the coach may demonstrate the skill more than once. Another good technique the coach could use is to allow the participants to attempt the new skill themselves after the demonstration, and then afterwards show the demonstration again, pointing out error that the players made and ways to produce the skill successfully.
The final stage that leads to the ability to reproduce the learned skill accurately is motivational response. For any of the three stages above, the performer must be motivated, and want to learn new skills. This motivation may come internally, or can be enforced through feedback from the coach or praise when the skill or an aspect of the skill is done correctly. The coach can aid this motivation by allowing the performer a sense of achievement by feeding back extrinsically in a positive manner to the players.
After the demonstration and these stages of learning based on observation, which is social learning theory, the player may successfully match the performance of demonstrator. Demonstration is a favored teaching method of coaches, as many people learn visually. Players may also learn kinesthetically and the stage of motor reproduction that SLT allows will assist these participants in the acquisition of the new skill. If the coach understand the theory, it can be a very successful way to teach new skills to players of all levels.