Outline principles that define the Biological Level of Analysis
Intro:
· The biological level of analysis (BLA) states that all cognitions, emotions and behaviors have a physiological basis.
o These principles are the main ideas that have driven focused research on specific areas of behavior and physiology.
o They also allow us to understanding how behavior can be caused or influenced by biological factors.
Patterns of behavior can be inherited through genes
Body
· Reductionist approach
o At the BLA, researchers break down complex human physiology and behavior into its smallest components to study
1. Patterns of behavior can be inherited through genes
· Genetic predisposition towards certain behaviors
· Human cell division leads to changes in DNA sequences, changing the genetic code and causing genetic mutations which lead to variations in physical and mental capacities
· Study: Minnesota Twin Study – Bouchard et al
· Tracks down two separated twins from across and world and participants complete 50 hours of medical and psychological assessments including personality traits, occupational interests and mental ability
· An identical twin that is reared away from their twin seems to have about an equal change of being similar to the twin in terms of personality, interests and attitudes as one who has been reared with his twin
· Good example: Jim twins. Adopted at age of 4 weeks. Re-united at 39 and found similarities like same name of wife AND ex-wife, same name of son, same name of adopted brother, same dog name, both did poorly in spelling and well in maths, both in carpentry, mechanical drawing and block lettering, both suffered from tension headaches at 18, gained weight at same time, same height etc
· Similarities between twins are due to genes, not environment
Conclusion: the similarities are too great to be put down to coincidence. The extent of the similarities support the principle of the level of analysis that genes determine certain behaviors.
Principle 2: Everything that is psychological is first physiological, hence brain structure can determine behavior.
Maguire et al. (2000)
Aim: To investigate whether or not the hippocampus plays a role in human spatial memory
Method:
· The biological level of analysis (BLA) states that all cognitions, emotions and behaviors have a physiological basis.
o These principles are the main ideas that have driven focused research on specific areas of behavior and physiology.
o They also allow us to understanding how behavior can be caused or influenced by biological factors.
Patterns of behavior can be inherited through genes
Body
· Reductionist approach
o At the BLA, researchers break down complex human physiology and behavior into its smallest components to study
1. Patterns of behavior can be inherited through genes
· Genetic predisposition towards certain behaviors
· Human cell division leads to changes in DNA sequences, changing the genetic code and causing genetic mutations which lead to variations in physical and mental capacities
· Study: Minnesota Twin Study – Bouchard et al
· Tracks down two separated twins from across and world and participants complete 50 hours of medical and psychological assessments including personality traits, occupational interests and mental ability
· An identical twin that is reared away from their twin seems to have about an equal change of being similar to the twin in terms of personality, interests and attitudes as one who has been reared with his twin
· Good example: Jim twins. Adopted at age of 4 weeks. Re-united at 39 and found similarities like same name of wife AND ex-wife, same name of son, same name of adopted brother, same dog name, both did poorly in spelling and well in maths, both in carpentry, mechanical drawing and block lettering, both suffered from tension headaches at 18, gained weight at same time, same height etc
· Similarities between twins are due to genes, not environment
Conclusion: the similarities are too great to be put down to coincidence. The extent of the similarities support the principle of the level of analysis that genes determine certain behaviors.
Principle 2: Everything that is psychological is first physiological, hence brain structure can determine behavior.
Maguire et al. (2000)
Aim: To investigate whether or not the hippocampus plays a role in human spatial memory
Method:
- London taxi drivers with a range of age and experience were the participants because their work requires the extensive use of spatial navigational skills
- Matched pairs design: participants were age and gender matched with a control group
- Two different types of MRI scanning were used to assess how the brains of the taxi drivers differed from the control group
- Quasi experiment
- VBM showed significantly more grey matter in both left and right hippocampi of the taxi drivers compared to the control group, but this was restricted to the posterior region.
- For the control group, the pixel counting revealed a larger anterior right hippocampus than the left and larger body of the hippocampus on the right than the left than in taxi drivers, but the posterior hippocampus was larger in taxi drivers than in controls.
- No researcher bias
- No demand characteristics
- No ethical implications
- Only observed males
- Only observed 16 matched pairs
- Nature vs. Nurture debate: did the driving influence the change in the hippocampus, or did their larger than average hippocampus lead them to become taxi drivers?
- Use a longitudinal study to determine which one it is
- Positive correlation between time spent taxi-driving and the volume of the right posterior hippocampus.
- Quantitative data received
- Allowed us to understand that the hippocampus is one of the parts of the brain that stores memory, which helps us understand how to rehabilitate patients with brain damage
Explain how principles that define the Biological Level of Analysis may be demonstrated in research.
Intro:
Principle: Patterns of behavior can be inherited through genes
· Genetic predisposition towards certain behaviors
· Human cell division leads to changes in DNA sequences, changing the genetic code and causing genetic mutations which lead to variations in physical and mental capacities
Body:
Study: Minnesota Twin Study – Bouchard et al (Quasi)
· Tracks down two separated twins from across and world and participants complete 50 hours of medical and psychological assessments including personality traits, occupational interests and mental ability
· An identical twin that is reared away from their twin seems to have about an equal change of being similar to the twin in terms of personality, interests and attitudes as one who has been reared with his twin
· Good example: Jim twins. Adopted at age of 4 weeks. Re-united at 39 and found similarities like same name of wife AND ex-wife, same name of son, same name of adopted brother, same dog name, both did poorly in spelling and well in maths, both in carpentry, mechanical drawing and block lettering, both suffered from tension headaches at 18, gained weight at same time, same height etc
· Similarities between twins are due to genes, not environment
Conclusion: the similarities are too great to be put down to coincidence. The extent of the similarities support the principle of the level of analysis that genes determine certain behaviors.
Principle 2: Everything that is psychological is first physiological, hence brain structure can determine behavior.
Maguire et al. (2000)
Aim: To investigate whether or not the hippocampus plays a role in human spatial memory
Method:
Principle: Patterns of behavior can be inherited through genes
· Genetic predisposition towards certain behaviors
· Human cell division leads to changes in DNA sequences, changing the genetic code and causing genetic mutations which lead to variations in physical and mental capacities
Body:
Study: Minnesota Twin Study – Bouchard et al (Quasi)
· Tracks down two separated twins from across and world and participants complete 50 hours of medical and psychological assessments including personality traits, occupational interests and mental ability
· An identical twin that is reared away from their twin seems to have about an equal change of being similar to the twin in terms of personality, interests and attitudes as one who has been reared with his twin
· Good example: Jim twins. Adopted at age of 4 weeks. Re-united at 39 and found similarities like same name of wife AND ex-wife, same name of son, same name of adopted brother, same dog name, both did poorly in spelling and well in maths, both in carpentry, mechanical drawing and block lettering, both suffered from tension headaches at 18, gained weight at same time, same height etc
· Similarities between twins are due to genes, not environment
Conclusion: the similarities are too great to be put down to coincidence. The extent of the similarities support the principle of the level of analysis that genes determine certain behaviors.
Principle 2: Everything that is psychological is first physiological, hence brain structure can determine behavior.
Maguire et al. (2000)
Aim: To investigate whether or not the hippocampus plays a role in human spatial memory
Method:
- London taxi drivers with a range of age and experience were the participants because their work requires the extensive use of spatial navigational skills
- Matched pairs design: participants were age and gender matched with a control group
- Two different types of MRI scanning were used to assess how the brains of the taxi drivers differed from the control group
- Quasi experiment
- VBM showed significantly more grey matter in both left and right hippocampi of the taxi drivers compared to the control group, but this was restricted to the posterior region.
- For the control group, the pixel counting revealed a larger anterior right hippocampus than the left and larger body of the hippocampus on the right than the left than in taxi drivers, but the posterior hippocampus was larger in taxi drivers than in controls.
- No researcher bias
- No demand characteristics
- No ethical implications
- Only observed males
- Only observed 16 matched pairs
- Nature vs. Nurture debate: did the driving influence the change in the hippocampus, or did their larger than average hippocampus lead them to become taxi drivers?
- Use a longitudinal study to determine which one it is
- Positive correlation between time spent taxi-driving and the volume of the right posterior hippocampus.
- Quantitative data received
- Allowed us to understand that the hippocampus is one of the parts of the brain that stores memory, which helps us understand how to rehabilitate patients with brain damage
Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis.
Intro: BLOA looks at individual and their genetic makeup as explanation for behavior, therefore the research methods often are very deep and specific on individuals. Case studies and Quasi
Research method: Case studies – HM
· To investigate that cannot be investigated in a laboratory
· E.g participants with brain damage
· Stimulates new research and challenges/supports theories
· Allows for studies of phenomena that cannot be studied any other way
· However there are problems with generalizability
· This is done through observation, questionnaires, interviews, diaries
· The study can go on for a long period of time
· Study: HM
· HM underwent an operation for epilepsy during which his hippocampi were removed
· He then suffered severe amnesia where he could no longer transfer information to LTM
· His epilepsy was located to his medial temporal lobe and parts of his temporal cortex was destroyed
· After surgery, HM could complete STM tasks and recall LTM before the procedure but could not form any LTM after surgery
· His biological impairment and result in his loss of hippocampi resulted in the loss of ability to transfer memories into LTM.
· Bio factor of parts of the brain affects cognitive process
· Most studied subject in the history of psych
Study: Murderers - Raine (Quasi)
Principle: Emotions and behaviors are products of the anatomy and physiology of the nervous and endocrine systems
Localization of function is the theory that certain areas of the brain corresponds to certain functions – it refers to the idea that behavior, emotions and thoughts originate in the brain in specific locations. When one area of the brain is damaged it can cause loss or change in that function. One study that relates to the localization of functions in the brain is Raine et al (1997)’s study on murderers who pled guilty for reasons of insanity.
Body
Quasi study - 41 (NGRIs) and 41 regular people with no violent history (IV)
Looking for differences in brain activity (DV)
Scanned for brain abnormalities using a PET scan NGRIs had less activity in the pre-frontal cortex
Strength: used a large sample, so other reasons for lack of activity are less likely
Conclusion: both gather rich data on individuals. Often in BLOA the research is done on people with abnormalities, and the results from those investigation are able to then shine light on the make up of people without such abnormalities. Once one person is found that is willing to be investigated, psychologists take this time to conduct exhaustive research in order to gain as much knowledge as possible. Quasi are used to investigate those who it would be unethical to purposefully manipulate in the name of psychology.
Research method: Case studies – HM
· To investigate that cannot be investigated in a laboratory
· E.g participants with brain damage
· Stimulates new research and challenges/supports theories
· Allows for studies of phenomena that cannot be studied any other way
· However there are problems with generalizability
· This is done through observation, questionnaires, interviews, diaries
· The study can go on for a long period of time
· Study: HM
· HM underwent an operation for epilepsy during which his hippocampi were removed
· He then suffered severe amnesia where he could no longer transfer information to LTM
· His epilepsy was located to his medial temporal lobe and parts of his temporal cortex was destroyed
· After surgery, HM could complete STM tasks and recall LTM before the procedure but could not form any LTM after surgery
· His biological impairment and result in his loss of hippocampi resulted in the loss of ability to transfer memories into LTM.
· Bio factor of parts of the brain affects cognitive process
· Most studied subject in the history of psych
Study: Murderers - Raine (Quasi)
- to investigate naturally occurring abnormalities to shine light on regular people
- can determine the importance of genetic information in determining behavior
- more ethical to use quasi than to personally manipulate the variables
Principle: Emotions and behaviors are products of the anatomy and physiology of the nervous and endocrine systems
Localization of function is the theory that certain areas of the brain corresponds to certain functions – it refers to the idea that behavior, emotions and thoughts originate in the brain in specific locations. When one area of the brain is damaged it can cause loss or change in that function. One study that relates to the localization of functions in the brain is Raine et al (1997)’s study on murderers who pled guilty for reasons of insanity.
Body
Quasi study - 41 (NGRIs) and 41 regular people with no violent history (IV)
Looking for differences in brain activity (DV)
Scanned for brain abnormalities using a PET scan NGRIs had less activity in the pre-frontal cortex
- associated with self-control and emotion
Strength: used a large sample, so other reasons for lack of activity are less likely
- however, cannot say conclusively a cause and effect relationship
- social cultural and cognitive factors need to be looked at
- may be the individuals have attempted to seem insane to get a lesser sentence, and this has changed their brain matter
Conclusion: both gather rich data on individuals. Often in BLOA the research is done on people with abnormalities, and the results from those investigation are able to then shine light on the make up of people without such abnormalities. Once one person is found that is willing to be investigated, psychologists take this time to conduct exhaustive research in order to gain as much knowledge as possible. Quasi are used to investigate those who it would be unethical to purposefully manipulate in the name of psychology.
Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis.
Intro: In psychology ethics must be considered to ensure participants are not harmed and that the research conducted is ethically valid. Researchers should always conduct research in an ethically manner and studies should always be evaluated critically for ethical issues. The American Psychology Association (APA) published ethical standards that all psychology researches must abide by. However, in the biological level of analysis there have been many research conducted, especially in the areas involving genes, that violates these ethical considerations.
- Participants have a right to be fully informed about what the research is about, the procedures, what could be the result of the study and how the information will be used. Research into genetic influences on behavior could potentially pose risks to participants and the genetic information can be misused. Also, genetic research can reveal unexpected information such as data showing genetic predisposition, which can cause distress in participants
- Participants must be sure that their anonymity and confidentiality is protected, however in family and twin studies, this can be difficult to ensure fully (also in rare disorders).
- Participants have the right to know who owns their genetic information and how it will be used in the future
① Bouchard et al (1990) – Minnesota Twin Study
- A longitudinal study to determine how much of intelligence is attributed to genetics and environment
- Over 100 sets of monozygotic (MZT) and dizygotic (DZT) around the world who were raised together and reared apart
- Results: the similarity rates between the MZTs reared apart was approx. 76%
- Bouchard determined the heritability estimate of 70% of intelligence attributed to genetics and 30% to other factors.
- Relates to behavior is inherited because the concordance rate between the twins showed that their behavior was mostly by genetics rather than the environment
- Limitations:
- may not be happy with results
- reunion of twins can cause emotional drama for the twins and their families
- some may have grown up better
- confidentiality of twins
Conclusion: Genetic studies have higher ethical implications, as reuniting siblings with each other can have heavy consequences. Families, although having given consent, may have had reasons for giving the children up for adoption. It may cause complications, and they can't fully withdraw from the study as they will forever have a new person introduced into their lives.
- Participants have a right to be fully informed about what the research is about, the procedures, what could be the result of the study and how the information will be used. Research into genetic influences on behavior could potentially pose risks to participants and the genetic information can be misused. Also, genetic research can reveal unexpected information such as data showing genetic predisposition, which can cause distress in participants
- Participants must be sure that their anonymity and confidentiality is protected, however in family and twin studies, this can be difficult to ensure fully (also in rare disorders).
- Participants have the right to know who owns their genetic information and how it will be used in the future
① Bouchard et al (1990) – Minnesota Twin Study
- A longitudinal study to determine how much of intelligence is attributed to genetics and environment
- Over 100 sets of monozygotic (MZT) and dizygotic (DZT) around the world who were raised together and reared apart
- Results: the similarity rates between the MZTs reared apart was approx. 76%
- Bouchard determined the heritability estimate of 70% of intelligence attributed to genetics and 30% to other factors.
- Relates to behavior is inherited because the concordance rate between the twins showed that their behavior was mostly by genetics rather than the environment
- Limitations:
- may not be happy with results
- reunion of twins can cause emotional drama for the twins and their families
- some may have grown up better
- confidentiality of twins
Conclusion: Genetic studies have higher ethical implications, as reuniting siblings with each other can have heavy consequences. Families, although having given consent, may have had reasons for giving the children up for adoption. It may cause complications, and they can't fully withdraw from the study as they will forever have a new person introduced into their lives.
Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain.
Raine - Murderers (not guilty for reasons of insanity)
Intro:
Principle: Emotions and behaviors are products of the anatomy and physiology of the nervous and endocrine systems
Localization of function is the theory that certain areas of the brain corresponds to certain functions – it refers to the idea that behavior, emotions and thoughts originate in the brain in specific locations. When one area of the brain is damaged it can cause loss or change in that function. One study that relates to the localization of functions in the brain is Raine et al (1997)’s study on murderers who pled guilty for reasons of insanity.
Body
Quasi study - 41 (NGRIs) and 41 regular people with no violent history (IV)
Looking for differences in brain activity (DV)
Scanned for brain abnormalities using a PET scan NGRIs had less activity in the pre-frontal cortex
Strength: used a large sample, so other reasons for lack of activity are less likely
Conclusion
Despite other factors, the results are conclusive enough to suggest a link between aggression and the prefrontal cortex
In conclusion, Raine et al’s study illustrated localization of function as it suggested that the dysfunction in certain brain areas – in this case the pre-frontal cortex – might be the reason for violent or aggressive behavior.
Intro:
Principle: Emotions and behaviors are products of the anatomy and physiology of the nervous and endocrine systems
Localization of function is the theory that certain areas of the brain corresponds to certain functions – it refers to the idea that behavior, emotions and thoughts originate in the brain in specific locations. When one area of the brain is damaged it can cause loss or change in that function. One study that relates to the localization of functions in the brain is Raine et al (1997)’s study on murderers who pled guilty for reasons of insanity.
Body
Quasi study - 41 (NGRIs) and 41 regular people with no violent history (IV)
Looking for differences in brain activity (DV)
Scanned for brain abnormalities using a PET scan NGRIs had less activity in the pre-frontal cortex
- associated with self-control and emotion
Strength: used a large sample, so other reasons for lack of activity are less likely
- however, cannot say conclusively a cause and effect relationship
- social cultural and cognitive factors need to be looked at
- may be the individuals have attempted to seem insane to get a lesser sentence, and this has changed their brain matter
Conclusion
Despite other factors, the results are conclusive enough to suggest a link between aggression and the prefrontal cortex
In conclusion, Raine et al’s study illustrated localization of function as it suggested that the dysfunction in certain brain areas – in this case the pre-frontal cortex – might be the reason for violent or aggressive behavior.
Using one or more examples, explain the effects of neurotransmission on human behavior.
Intro:
· Neurotransmission: process when signals are transmitted in the neurons through the synapse with the help of neurotransmitters
· A neurotransmitter is a chemical in the synapse that transmits signals between neurons
Neurons are nerve cells and neurotransmitters are body’s natural chemical messengers, which transmit information from one neuron to another. The process is called neurotransmission; when an electrical impulse travels down the axon, it releases neurotransmitters, which crosses the synapse to the post-synaptic membrane. Dopamine and Serotonin are two examples of neurotransmitters that affect human behavior.
Serotonin – neurotransmitter involved in aggression, depression, love, sleep
· Depressed people have lower levels of serotonin than non-depressed people
· Anti-depressants such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI’s) inhibit the reuptake of the neurotransmitter serotonin, allowing more of it to bind to the post-synaptic neuron
· Effect of behaviour: depression with lower levels
Study: Teuting
· Individuals with depression were asked to provide a urine sample
· There was a significantly lower level of serotonin in the urine sample of participants with depression
· Therefore serotonin regulates sleep, mood, and feelings of happiness
· A decrease in serotonin leads to the symptoms associated with depression
Conclusion: Serotonin levels determine the levels of depression. There is a biological explanation for the behavior of depression, must be considered alongside environmental reasons and personal reasons from the sociocultural and cognitive level of analysis.
· Neurotransmission: process when signals are transmitted in the neurons through the synapse with the help of neurotransmitters
· A neurotransmitter is a chemical in the synapse that transmits signals between neurons
Neurons are nerve cells and neurotransmitters are body’s natural chemical messengers, which transmit information from one neuron to another. The process is called neurotransmission; when an electrical impulse travels down the axon, it releases neurotransmitters, which crosses the synapse to the post-synaptic membrane. Dopamine and Serotonin are two examples of neurotransmitters that affect human behavior.
Serotonin – neurotransmitter involved in aggression, depression, love, sleep
· Depressed people have lower levels of serotonin than non-depressed people
· Anti-depressants such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI’s) inhibit the reuptake of the neurotransmitter serotonin, allowing more of it to bind to the post-synaptic neuron
· Effect of behaviour: depression with lower levels
Study: Teuting
· Individuals with depression were asked to provide a urine sample
· There was a significantly lower level of serotonin in the urine sample of participants with depression
· Therefore serotonin regulates sleep, mood, and feelings of happiness
· A decrease in serotonin leads to the symptoms associated with depression
Conclusion: Serotonin levels determine the levels of depression. There is a biological explanation for the behavior of depression, must be considered alongside environmental reasons and personal reasons from the sociocultural and cognitive level of analysis.
Using one or more examples, explain functions of two hormones in human behaviour.
Intro:
Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted by glands
Two hormones: Adrenaline and Melatonin
Body
Adrenaline
"fight or flight"
Gets secreted into the blood stream which increases the flow of oxygen and blood supply to the brain through an increase heart rate and dilated blood vessels. This increases the alertness in people.
Schacher and Singer (1962) (Two-factor theory)
Aim: test the origin of emotion, especially on recognizing a threat
Method: lab (184 participants, M, college)
Conclusion: emotion occurs by a process of cognitive labeling – the interpretation of physical cues combined by contextual cues to construct a person’s subjective experience of emotion.
Melatonin
sleep cycle
Avery et al (2001) SAD
Aim: the effect of light and its wavelength in the treatment of SAD
Method: 95 participants who all had SAD
Conclusion: Melatonin regulates sleeping patterns, melatonin is also related to jet lag, when melatonin is not released at appropriate times, sleep deprivation occurs.
Conclusion:
Thus, adrenaline and melatonin were two hormones that affect human behavior. Adrenaline increases heart rate and blood pressure, which makes people more alert, and melatonin causes sleepiness.
Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted by glands
- effect both physiologically and psychologically on humans
- The endocrine system is the system of glands that releases hormones into the bloodstream
Two hormones: Adrenaline and Melatonin
Body
Adrenaline
"fight or flight"
- prepares the body to deal with extremely dangerous situation
Gets secreted into the blood stream which increases the flow of oxygen and blood supply to the brain through an increase heart rate and dilated blood vessels. This increases the alertness in people.
Schacher and Singer (1962) (Two-factor theory)
Aim: test the origin of emotion, especially on recognizing a threat
Method: lab (184 participants, M, college)
- adrenaline informed
- adrenaline misinformed
- control
Conclusion: emotion occurs by a process of cognitive labeling – the interpretation of physical cues combined by contextual cues to construct a person’s subjective experience of emotion.
Melatonin
sleep cycle
- communicates with the pituitary gland and inhibits other hormones related to alertness and wakefulness
- relies on signals from the eyes - regulates night cycles
Avery et al (2001) SAD
Aim: the effect of light and its wavelength in the treatment of SAD
Method: 95 participants who all had SAD
- bright light (6:00am to 6:30am - normal SAD treatment)
- dawn (sunrise simulation - light increasing from 4:30am to 6:00am)
- Red light placebo (dim red light stimulates melatonin from 4:30am to 6:00am)
Conclusion: Melatonin regulates sleeping patterns, melatonin is also related to jet lag, when melatonin is not released at appropriate times, sleep deprivation occurs.
Conclusion:
Thus, adrenaline and melatonin were two hormones that affect human behavior. Adrenaline increases heart rate and blood pressure, which makes people more alert, and melatonin causes sleepiness.
Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes.
Intro:
Environment: The Knowledge, learning the taxi routes and the spatial memory
Physiological process: the brain plasticity, the change in grey matter of the hippocampus
Maguire et al. (2000)
Aim: To investigate whether or not the hippocampus plays a role in human spatial memory
Method:
effect of the SAD on sleep cycle
sleep cycle - melatonin
Avery et al (2001) SAD
Aim: the effect of light and its wavelength in the treatment of SAD
Method: 95 participants who all had SAD
Conclusion: The requirement of learning all of the maps (which is the environmental process) changes the physiological process of the amount of grey matter present in the hippocami of the brain. Melatonin regulates sleeping patterns, melatonin is also related to jet lag, when melatonin is not released at appropriate times, sleep deprivation occurs. The light in certain climates can cause a increase of SAD, therefore the environment affects their release of the hormone which causes depression.
Environment: The Knowledge, learning the taxi routes and the spatial memory
Physiological process: the brain plasticity, the change in grey matter of the hippocampus
Maguire et al. (2000)
Aim: To investigate whether or not the hippocampus plays a role in human spatial memory
Method:
- London taxi drivers with a range of age and experience were the participants because their work requires the extensive use of spatial navigational skills
- Matched pairs design: participants were age and gender matched with a control group
- Two different types of MRI scanning were used to assess how the brains of the taxi drivers differed from the control group
- Quasi experiment
- VBM showed significantly more grey matter in both left and right hippocampi of the taxi drivers compared to the control group, but this was restricted to the posterior region.
- For the control group, the pixel counting revealed a larger anterior right hippocampus than the left and larger body of the hippocampus on the right than the left than in taxi drivers, but the posterior hippocampus was larger in taxi drivers than in controls.
- No researcher bias
- No demand characteristics
- No ethical implications
- Only observed males
- Only observed 16 matched pairs
- Nature vs. Nurture debate: did the driving influence the change in the hippocampus, or did their larger than average hippocampus lead them to become taxi drivers?
- Use a longitudinal study to determine which one it is
- Positive correlation between time spent taxi-driving and the volume of the right posterior hippocampus.
- Quantitative data received
- Allowed us to understand that the hippocampus is one of the parts of the brain that stores memory, which helps us understand how to rehabilitate patients with brain damage
effect of the SAD on sleep cycle
sleep cycle - melatonin
- communicates with the pituitary gland and inhibits other hormones related to alertness and wakefulness
- relies on signals from the eyes - regulates night cycles
Avery et al (2001) SAD
Aim: the effect of light and its wavelength in the treatment of SAD
Method: 95 participants who all had SAD
- bright light (6:00am to 6:30am - normal SAD treatment)
- dawn (sunrise simulation - light increasing from 4:30am to 6:00am)
- Red light placebo (dim red light stimulates melatonin from 4:30am to 6:00am)
Conclusion: The requirement of learning all of the maps (which is the environmental process) changes the physiological process of the amount of grey matter present in the hippocami of the brain. Melatonin regulates sleeping patterns, melatonin is also related to jet lag, when melatonin is not released at appropriate times, sleep deprivation occurs. The light in certain climates can cause a increase of SAD, therefore the environment affects their release of the hormone which causes depression.
Describe an interaction between cognition and phsysiology in terms of behavior
Intro: There is a relationship between the cognition of a person and their biological make up. Cognition is the mental process of acquiring knowledge, and physiology is the biology of how we function. A relationship between the two have been investigated in Davidson's study with the interaction between meditation and brain activity.
Cognition: thought process of meditation
Physiology: Change in brain structure (due to meditating)
Cognition: thought process of meditation
Physiology: Change in brain structure (due to meditating)
Conclusion: Although the study cannot conclusively suggest if the different levels of activity is because of the meditation rather than previous individual differences, the results do suggest that this is the trend. This study can spark more investigation into the topic and can lead into localization of function in the brain and how the brain can be altered based on non-biological stimuli.
Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies in investigating the relationships between biological factors and behavior.
Intro: Scanning technologies are a very popular method in the BLOA as they can scientifically show information that could beforehand only be hypothesized based on studies. The breakthrough in the technology has not only helped in the medical fields but to describe reason for psychological processes and illuminate things that were only theories before the invention. There are both limitations and strengths to the technology.
MRI SCANS:
MRI is a technique that uses magnetic field and radio waves to produce 3D computer-generated images of the brain. MRI scans involve people to remove a metal objects and clothing where they lie within an MRI machines. It is useful as it has the ability to distinguish different types of soft tissues and allows researchers to see structures within the brain.
Maguire et al (2000) – Quasi Experiment on London Taxi Drivers
- Aim: To investigate the hippocampus’ role in human spatial memory
- Participants: London taxi-drivers licensed for over 1.5 years (they have to memorize all roads)
- Maguire used MRI scans to scan the structure of experienced taxi drivers’ hippocampi and this was compared to non-taxi drivers’ brain
- Results: taxi-drivers had a larger hippocampal volume compared to non-taxi drivers à it can be suggested that there was probably a redistribution of grey matter in the hippocampi of taxi drivers due to regular use of spatial memory skills required to remember roads and that neurons are stronger in areas of the brain that are used the most
- Maguire was able to draw a correlation between the enrichment in environment and neuroplasticity
MRI SCANS:
MRI is a technique that uses magnetic field and radio waves to produce 3D computer-generated images of the brain. MRI scans involve people to remove a metal objects and clothing where they lie within an MRI machines. It is useful as it has the ability to distinguish different types of soft tissues and allows researchers to see structures within the brain.
Maguire et al (2000) – Quasi Experiment on London Taxi Drivers
- Aim: To investigate the hippocampus’ role in human spatial memory
- Participants: London taxi-drivers licensed for over 1.5 years (they have to memorize all roads)
- Maguire used MRI scans to scan the structure of experienced taxi drivers’ hippocampi and this was compared to non-taxi drivers’ brain
- Results: taxi-drivers had a larger hippocampal volume compared to non-taxi drivers à it can be suggested that there was probably a redistribution of grey matter in the hippocampi of taxi drivers due to regular use of spatial memory skills required to remember roads and that neurons are stronger in areas of the brain that are used the most
- Maguire was able to draw a correlation between the enrichment in environment and neuroplasticity
Conclusion: Cannot show cause and effect, but theories can be made from the studies. Can be repeated so the change over time can be investigated.
With reference to relevant to research studies, to what extent does genetic inheritance influence behavior.
Intro:
Principle: “Behavior is innate because genetic influences behavior”
Some psychologists argue that people have a genetic predisposition. Genes are segments of the DNA inherited by the offspring from the parents and genes are considered to be responsible for the development of behavioral characteristic.
Sperry: “Everything psychological was first physiological”
To a LARGE EXTENT genetics influences behavior à behavior is inherited
Can be seen through twin studies and adoption studies
① Bouchard et al (1990) – Minnesota Twin Study
- A longitudinal study to determine how much of intelligence is attributed to genetics and environment
- Over 100 sets of monozygotic (MZT) and dizygotic (DZT) around the world who were raised together and reared apart
- Results: the similarity rates between the MZTs reared apart was approx. 76%
- Bouchard determined the heritability estimate of 70% of intelligence attributed to genetics and 30% to other factors.
- Relates to behavior is inherited because the concordance rate between the twins showed that their behavior was mostly by genetics rather than the environment
- Strengths: there were supporting studies conducted making this study reliable, there was a large sample size making the study more externally valid than most other twin studies
- Limitations: there were no control over the frequency of contact between twins before the study and bouchard assumed that the twins raised together experienced the same environment
Conclusion: Shows that biological make-up and genes are responsible for a lot of behavior. Although there is importance in the environmental upbringing, which is argued in the nature vs. nurture debate, it is difficult to look past the high levels of similarities present in the results from the study.
Principle: “Behavior is innate because genetic influences behavior”
Some psychologists argue that people have a genetic predisposition. Genes are segments of the DNA inherited by the offspring from the parents and genes are considered to be responsible for the development of behavioral characteristic.
Sperry: “Everything psychological was first physiological”
To a LARGE EXTENT genetics influences behavior à behavior is inherited
Can be seen through twin studies and adoption studies
① Bouchard et al (1990) – Minnesota Twin Study
- A longitudinal study to determine how much of intelligence is attributed to genetics and environment
- Over 100 sets of monozygotic (MZT) and dizygotic (DZT) around the world who were raised together and reared apart
- Results: the similarity rates between the MZTs reared apart was approx. 76%
- Bouchard determined the heritability estimate of 70% of intelligence attributed to genetics and 30% to other factors.
- Relates to behavior is inherited because the concordance rate between the twins showed that their behavior was mostly by genetics rather than the environment
- Strengths: there were supporting studies conducted making this study reliable, there was a large sample size making the study more externally valid than most other twin studies
- Limitations: there were no control over the frequency of contact between twins before the study and bouchard assumed that the twins raised together experienced the same environment
Conclusion: Shows that biological make-up and genes are responsible for a lot of behavior. Although there is importance in the environmental upbringing, which is argued in the nature vs. nurture debate, it is difficult to look past the high levels of similarities present in the results from the study.
Describe the evolutionary explanation of one behavior
Intro: CHANGE TO KIN SELECTION
Describe the theory of evolution (darwin + basics)
Mention specific behavior chosen (homicide)/Define homicide
Homicide is the action of killing another human.
Mention Homicide Adaptation Theory (HAT) Shackelford
Humans have become evolved with the physiological ability to kill others. In some activities such as hunting, there is psychological benefit of being able to kill. Killing, theoretically, increase the ability of the individual to be able to reproduce, as killing can be a way of beating rivals or step-children, as well as killing in order to prevent harm from you child or resources keeping you alive.
By looking at comparative psychology, it is logical that humans could adapt to killing other humans, as many animals engage in inter-spacial killing. As it has adapted within other species, it makes sense that it is possible for humans to evolve in the same way. The theory suggests that as we evolve, homicidal fantasies are more common when a better chance of reproducing is considered.
Conclusion: In specific contexts the ‘benefits’ of killing a spouse would have outweighed the ‘costs’ and hence mate killing adaptations would have evolved. The evolutionary process is based on cost benefit, often it is a utilitariansitic approach is taken and therefore the behavior would have adapted.
Describe the theory of evolution (darwin + basics)
- Evolution dictates that genetically based behaviors of an individual who has reproduced are passed on (while genetically based behaviors of unsuccessful individuals are are lost over time)
- If the behaviors we see today, then in the past the behavior must have helped in reproduction and survival.
Mention specific behavior chosen (homicide)/Define homicide
Homicide is the action of killing another human.
Mention Homicide Adaptation Theory (HAT) Shackelford
Humans have become evolved with the physiological ability to kill others. In some activities such as hunting, there is psychological benefit of being able to kill. Killing, theoretically, increase the ability of the individual to be able to reproduce, as killing can be a way of beating rivals or step-children, as well as killing in order to prevent harm from you child or resources keeping you alive.
By looking at comparative psychology, it is logical that humans could adapt to killing other humans, as many animals engage in inter-spacial killing. As it has adapted within other species, it makes sense that it is possible for humans to evolve in the same way. The theory suggests that as we evolve, homicidal fantasies are more common when a better chance of reproducing is considered.
Conclusion: In specific contexts the ‘benefits’ of killing a spouse would have outweighed the ‘costs’ and hence mate killing adaptations would have evolved. The evolutionary process is based on cost benefit, often it is a utilitariansitic approach is taken and therefore the behavior would have adapted.
Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behaviour.
Intro: In psychology ethics must be considered to ensure participants are not harmed and that the research conducted is ethically valid. Researchers should always conduct research in an ethically manner and studies should always be evaluated critically for ethical issues. The American Psychology Association (APA) published ethical standards that all psychology researches must abide by. However, in the biological level of analysis there have been many research conducted, especially in the areas involving genes, that violates these ethical considerations.
- Participants have a right to be fully informed about what the research is about, the procedures, what could be the result of the study and how the information will be used. Research into genetic influences on behavior could potentially pose risks to participants and the genetic information can be misused. Also, genetic research can reveal unexpected information such as data showing genetic predisposition, which can cause distress in participants
- Participants must be sure that their anonymity and confidentiality is protected, however in family and twin studies, this can be difficult to ensure fully (also in rare disorders).
- Participants have the right to know who owns their genetic information and how it will be used in the future
① Bouchard et al (1990) – Minnesota Twin Study
- A longitudinal study to determine how much of intelligence is attributed to genetics and environment
- Over 100 sets of monozygotic (MZT) and dizygotic (DZT) around the world who were raised together and reared apart
- Results: the similarity rates between the MZTs reared apart was approx. 76%
- Bouchard determined the heritability estimate of 70% of intelligence attributed to genetics and 30% to other factors.
- Relates to behavior is inherited because the concordance rate between the twins showed that their behavior was mostly by genetics rather than the environment
- Limitations:
- may not be happy with results
- reunion of twins can cause emotional drama for the twins and their families
- some may have grown up better
- confidentiality of twins
Implications: can start a trend on genetic testing and eugenics, start to use selective breeding
Conclusion: Genetic studies have higher ethical implications, as reuniting siblings with each other can have heavy consequences. Families, although having given consent, may have had reasons for giving the children up for adoption. It may cause complications, and they can't fully withdraw from the study as they will forever have a new person introduced into their lives.
- Participants have a right to be fully informed about what the research is about, the procedures, what could be the result of the study and how the information will be used. Research into genetic influences on behavior could potentially pose risks to participants and the genetic information can be misused. Also, genetic research can reveal unexpected information such as data showing genetic predisposition, which can cause distress in participants
- Participants must be sure that their anonymity and confidentiality is protected, however in family and twin studies, this can be difficult to ensure fully (also in rare disorders).
- Participants have the right to know who owns their genetic information and how it will be used in the future
① Bouchard et al (1990) – Minnesota Twin Study
- A longitudinal study to determine how much of intelligence is attributed to genetics and environment
- Over 100 sets of monozygotic (MZT) and dizygotic (DZT) around the world who were raised together and reared apart
- Results: the similarity rates between the MZTs reared apart was approx. 76%
- Bouchard determined the heritability estimate of 70% of intelligence attributed to genetics and 30% to other factors.
- Relates to behavior is inherited because the concordance rate between the twins showed that their behavior was mostly by genetics rather than the environment
- Limitations:
- may not be happy with results
- reunion of twins can cause emotional drama for the twins and their families
- some may have grown up better
- confidentiality of twins
Implications: can start a trend on genetic testing and eugenics, start to use selective breeding
Conclusion: Genetic studies have higher ethical implications, as reuniting siblings with each other can have heavy consequences. Families, although having given consent, may have had reasons for giving the children up for adoption. It may cause complications, and they can't fully withdraw from the study as they will forever have a new person introduced into their lives.